SDG 15 - Life on land

sdg 15

Sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, halt biodiversity loss

Forests cover 30.7 per cent of the Earth’s surface and, in addition to providing food security and shelter, they are key to combating climate change, protecting biodiversity and the homes of the indigenous population. By protecting forests, we will also be able to strengthen natural resource management and increase land productivity.

At the current time, thirteen million hectares of forests are being lost every year while the persistent degradation of drylands has led to the desertification of 3.6 billion hectares. Even though up to 15% of land is currently under protection, biodiversity is still at risk. Deforestation and desertification – caused by human activities and climate change – pose major challenges to sustainable development and have affected the lives and livelihoods of millions of people in the fight against poverty.

Efforts are being made to manage forests and combat desertification. There are two international agreements being implemented currently that promote the use of resources in an equitable way. Financial investments in support of biodiversity are also being provided.

The Lion’s Share Fund

On 21 June, 2018, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), FINCH and founding partner Mars, Incorporated, announced the Lion’s Share, an initiative aimed at transforming the lives of animals across the world by asking advertisers to contribute a percentage of their media spend to conservation and animal welfare projects.  The Lion’s Share will see partners contribute 0.5 percent of their media spend to the fund for each advertisement they use featuring an animal. Those funds will be used to support animals and their habitats around the world. The Fund is seeking to raise US$100m a year within three years, with the money being invested in a range of wildlife conservation and animal welfare programs to be implemented by United Nations and civil society organizations.

Facts and Figures

Forests

  •     Around 1.6 billion people depend on forests for their livelihood, including 70 million indigenous people.
  •     Forests are home to more than 80 per cent of all terrestrial species of animals, plants and insects.
  •     Between 2010 and 2015, the world lost 3.3 million hectares of forest areas. Poor rural women depend on common pool resources and are especially affected by their depletion.

Desertification

  •     6 billion people depend directly on agriculture, but 52 per cent of the land used for agriculture is moderately or severely affected by soil degradation.
  •     Arable land loss is estimated at 30 to 35 times the historical rate
  •     Due to drought and desertification, 12 million hectares are lost each year (23 hectares per minute). Within one year, 20 million tons of grain could have been grown.
  •     74 per cent of the poor are directly affected by land degradation globally.

Biodiversity

  •     Illicit poaching and trafficking of wildlife continues to thwart conservation efforts, with nearly 7,000 species of animals and plants reported in illegal trade involving 120 countries.
  •     Of the 8,300 animal breeds known, 8 per cent are extinct and 22 per cent are at risk of extinction.
  •     Of the over 80,000 tree species, less than 1 per cent have been studied for potential use.
  •     Fish provide 20 per cent of animal protein to about 3 billion people. Only ten species provide about 30 per cent of marine capture fisheries and ten species provide about 50 per cent of aquaculture production.
  •     Over 80 per cent of the human diet is provided by plants. Only three cereal crops – rice, maize and wheat – provide 60 per cent of energy intake.
  •     As many as 80 per cent of people living in rural areas in developing countries rely on traditional plant-­‐based medicines for basic healthcare.
  •     Micro-organisms and invertebrates are key to ecosystem services, but their contributions are still poorly known and rarely acknowledged.

Space-based Technologies for SDG 15

Protecting nature and biodiversity is an increasingly important challenge for humanity.
Satellite technology can be used to track endangered species and disrupt the poaching activities that drive the illegal wildlife trade.
UNOOSA helps stakeholders in biodiversity and wildlife management use space applications to monitor, assess and manage biodiversity and ecosystems.
http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/psa/emnrm/biodiversity.html

 

Learn more about the SDGs

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Register for the Participatory Workshop for Indigenous Women - apply for funding until 21 August

Are you an indigenous women or in touch with indigenous communities. Don't miss this chance to make the voices of indigenous women heard. We would like to contribute to closing the digital divide, as well as to raise the voices of indigenous women on their views realated to water and the environment.

Spread the word about this opportunity so we can reach as many Indigenous women as possible.

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Rebecca Gustine is currently a PhD student at Washington State University in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering studying civil engineering with a focus on water resources. She is also an intern at NASA JPL where she is a member of the ECOSTRESS applied science mission team working with local agencies to inform resource management and conservation efforts. We talked to her about her interdisciplinary research experiences through her undergraduate and graduate school.

Interview with Lukas Graf

Lukas Graf used to take clean drinking water for granted. As he grew up, and conversations around climate change and environmental destruction became increasingly intense, he started to become more aware of the importance and scarcity of water resources. Around a similar time, he became increasingly enthusiastic about space, realising that space technologies could be used to explore many of the pressing topics that he was interested in. He has participated in research projects that used remote sensing methods to study the effects of global change on ecosystems and especially on water availability. Lukas is interested in a range of topics from virtual water and water quality to irrigation and agriculture. He believes that interdisciplinary approaches and mutual dialog with societies and stakeholders need to be deepened for sustained resource management.

Interview with Shaima Almeer, Senior Space Data Analyst at Bahrain National Space Science Agency

Shaima Almeer is a young Bahraini lady that works as a senior space data analyst at the National Space Science Agency. At NSSA she is responsible for acquiring data from satellite images and analyzing them into meaningful information aiming to serve more than 21 governmental entities. Shaima is also committed to publishing scientific research papers, aiming to support and spread the knowledge to others. In addition, she has recently graduated from a fellowship program at Bahrain’s Prime Minister’s Office. Shaima was selected among more than 1000 individuals to spend a year working as full-time research fellow, benefiting from advanced training in writing skills, research methods and policy analysis. The fellowship forms a core pillar of HRH the CP and PM initiative to improve national skills and support the Kingdom’s growing cadre of young government professionals. Part of the fellowship program is to work as a supervisor at the COVID-19 War Room. Shaima has obtained her bachelor’s degree in the field of Information and Communication Technology from Bahrain Polytechnic and is currently pursuing her Msc. degree in Management Information System from the University College of Bahrain. Prior to obtaining her bachelor’s degree, Shaima was titled as the first robotics programmer in the Kingdom of Bahrain and also won the title “Pioneering Women in Technology”. She has recently also won the “Women Innovator of the Year 2023 Award” in New Dehli.

Interview with Dr. Ayan Santos Fleischmann, Lead, Research Group in Geospatial Analysis of the Amazonian Environment and Territory

Ayan Santos Fleischmann is a hydrologist with a particular interest in wetlands and large-scale basins, mainly in South America and Africa, and in the context of human impacts on water resources. His main study approaches involve remote sensing techniques and hydrologic-hydrodynamic modeling, as well as interdisciplinary collaborations with other disciplines such as ecology and social sciences. Currently, he is a researcher at the Mamirauá Institute for Sustainable Development (Tefé, Amazonas, Brazil), where he leads the Research Group in Geospatial Analysis of the Amazonian Environment and Territory. He also leads the Conexões Amazônicas initiative for science communication about the Amazon Basin. Ayan holds a PhD degree from UFRGS, with a collaborative period at Université Toulouse III – Paul Sabatier (France). His Ph. D. thesis focused on the hydrology of the South American wetlands. Ayan holds an Environmental Engineering degree from the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), with a research stay at the University of East Anglia in the United Kingdom. In this interview, we talked to him about his career path, the work he has been developing in Brazil with wetlands and floods, and his work in the Amazon River basin.

Interview with Harriette Okal, Associate Scientist, Stockholm Environment Institute

How do you professionally relate to water and/or space technologies?

As a hydrologist, I’ve always been fascinated by the potential of space technologies in transforming water resource management. My work integrates satellite-based Earth Observation (EO) data with hydrological modelling, particularly for drought and flood monitoring, and water availability assessments in regions with scarce ground data. EO technologies allow me to capture real-time, high-resolution data, critical for climate resilience, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Interview with Padmi Ranasinghe, Doctoral student in Urban Planning and Public Policy at the University of Texas (UT) - Arlington

Padmi is currently reading for her Ph.D. focusing on Nature-based Solutions (NbS) for climate change risk reduction and resilience cities. She believes NbS can reduce hydro-meteorological hazards such as floods, droughts, and landslides in the long run. It is a strategy to minimize the gaps in decarbonizing and reducing greenhouse gases and a path to Net-zero cities. NbS, are actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural and modified ecosystems that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, benefiting people and nature (IUCN & World Bank, 2022). Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA), ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction (Eco-DRR), ecosystem-based mitigation (EbM), and green infrastructure are some branches under the umbrella of NbS. NbS include conserving forests, mangroves, and wetland ecosystems, halting deforestation, increasing reforestation, climate-smart agriculture, and opening green spaces. According to her, space technology is integral to planning, monitoring, and analysis. Space technology today is so advanced that it can capture and predict changes in the water cycle, climate change variables and so forth. Remote sensing data and satellite-derived information are essential in obtaining accurate data on a specific site anywhere on the Earth's surface. Most recently, she has been involved in projects utilizing urban NbS such as the conservation of Ramsar-Colombo to mitigate urban floods and adapt to climate change. To conduct wetland inventories, space-based data and GIS techniques can be utilized to detect the presence of wetlands and/or water in wetlands. Though there can be some challenges encountered such as limited coverage of specific areas within the wetland, clouds often hiding images, and the low resolution of data making it difficult to differentiate floral species. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (drones) can provide enhanced accuracy and consistency in measuring wetlands, as well as the presence of water in wetlands, using space technologies. Data and technologies from space contribute to watershed management, sediment measurements and many other environmental aspects.

Interview with Stephanie Tumampos, PhD Student at Chair of Remote Sensing Technology, Technical University Munich

How do your professional career and/or your personal experience relate to space technologies and water?

My interest in water is deeply rooted in my personal life. I grew up on an island in the Philippines where a lot of people depend on water as a source of livelihood. From fishing in the open sea to fish breeding, water has always been a source of income at home. Aside from this, the small community where I grew up struggled with access to running water.

Register for the 1st Space4Water Stakeholder Meeting - End or registration: 30 September

Space4Water stakeholders, featured young professionals and professionals, join us in Vienna at the 1st Space4Water Stakeholder Meeting.

Dates and location

The workshop will take place on 27-28 October 2022 at the Vienna International Centre, with an opportunity to host it online, should COVID prevent travels in October.

Registration

To be considered for participation Space4Water stakeholders and featured professionals can register here.

Register for the United Nations/Ghana/PSIPW - 5th International conference on the use of space technology for water resources management

The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) and the Government of Ghana are jointly organizing a Conference with the support of the Prince Sultan Bin Abdulaziz International Prize for Water (PSIPW) to promote the use of space technology in water management to the benefit of developing countries.

The Conference will be held in Accra, Ghana, from 10- 13 May 2022, hosted by the University of Energy and Natural Resources on behalf of the Government of Ghana.

Register for the 2nd Space4Water Stakeholder Meeting - End of registration: 30 April

organised by UNOOSA in partnership with the Prince Sultan Bin Abdulaziz International Prize for Water (PSIPW)
11-12 May 2023, Online
 
This event is restricted to Space4Water stakeholders, featured professionals, young professionals and representatives of Indigenous communities featured on the portal.

Registration for speakers submitting technical presentations closes on 15 April 2023.
Registration for all other participants closes on 30 April 2023.

Report on the Third Space4Water Stakeholder Meeting

The Office for Outer Space Affairs and the Prince Sultan Bin Abdulaziz International Prize for Water organized the third Space4Water stakeholder meeting hosted in Vienna on 24 and 25 October 2023 in a hybrid format.

The present report describes the objectives of the meeting and includes details of attendance and a summary of the presentations, discussions and interactive sessions, as well as the conclusions.

The full report is available for download below.

Launch of Zimbabwe's first Satellite ZIMSAT - 1

What began as the development of a cubesat (BIRD-5) at the Kyushu Institute of Technology in Japan took off on a spacecraft to the International Space Station from the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA's) Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia, US on 6 November 2022 (watch the video of the launch of the CRS2 NG-18 (Cygnus) Mission (Antares), in the video below the article).

Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space: 2021

The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space in its sixty-fourth session, which took place form 25 August-3 September 2021 in Vienna, adopted the below on its agenda item "Space and water": 
 

  1. The Committee considered the agenda item entitled “Space and water”, in accordance with General Assembly resolution 75/92.

Report of the United Nations/Costa Rica/PSIPW - Sixth conference on the use of space technology for water management (San José and online, 7–10 May 2024, with on-site training on 11 May 2024)

The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), the Government of Costa Rica, and the Prince Sultan Bin Abdulaziz International Prize for Water (PSIPW) were jointly organizing a conference to promote the use of space technology in water management to the benefit of developing countries.

The Conference was heldin San José, Costa Rica, from 7-10 May 2024, hosted by and with the support of the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA) on behalf of the Government of Costa Rica.

Interview with Yolanda Lopez-Maldonado

Name of the community

Maya

Short description of community and hydrogeology of the area

Yucatan is located in the southeast portion of Mexico. The total area of Yucatan is 124, 409 km2 and the population (by 2018) was ca. 2.1 million inhabitants. The landscape of the area is defined by a highly permeable karstic soil, a notable absence of rivers or permanent freshwater resources in the surface, and a high number of natural wells or sinkholes (locally called cenotes, from the Maya word t´sonot).  

Capacity Building and Training Material

Water Productivity and Water Accounting using WaPOR

Water Productivity and Water Accounting using WaPOR (the portal to monitor Water Productivity through Open-access of Remotely sensed derived data) is an open online course targeting practitioners and academicians who are working in water resources management and related fields and have interest in applying open access remote sensing data and other open data to assess the water resources situation and water productivity and the extent to which water productivity increases have an effect on different water users in a river basin context.

FAO CB4WA: Use of FAO WaPOR Portal

Overview

Welcome to the open access course Use of FAO WaPOR Portal from IHE Delft Institute for Water Education and the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO). WaPOR is the portal to monitor Water Productivity through Open-access of Remotely sensed derived data and has been developed by FAO. The FAO’s WaPOR programme assists countries in monitoring water productivity, identifying water productivity gaps, proposing solutions to reduce these gaps, and contributing to a sustainable increase in agricultural production.

GEO Knowledge Package Deep Dive - Webinar

GEO Knowledge Hub Webinar Series

The second GEO Knowledge Hub (GKH) webinar took place on Thursday 1 April 2021 from 1pm to 2pm (CET) 

Objective

The webinar covered a deep dive into the Land Use/Land Cover Classification Knowledge Package developed by the Brazilian Data Cube team at INPE. 

The webinar illustrated the journey of a Knowledge Provider, from creating a Knowledge Package through to sharing it in the GEO Knowledge Hub.

Data Recipes & Short Tutorials

Overview

Data recipes are video tutorials that include step-by-step instructions to help users learn how to discover, access, subset, visualize and use Earth science data, information, tools and services. These recipes cover many different data products across the Earth science disciplines and different processing languages/software.
 

Event

Participatory workshop for indigenous women on their roles and responsibilities related to water

Event Banner

register here until 21 August 2022 - if you would like to be considered for funding

In many places around the world women are responsible for water collection, a responsibility that globally takes them 200 million hours annually. It often leaves them with little to no time for school, work or to spend time with their family. Furthermore, indigenous communities' cultural heritage and knowledge about natural resources, including water, urgently needs to be considered and protected.

Local Perspectives Case Studies

Hydrometeorological disasters in the Indian Himalayas

Flash flood in Uttarakhand, India
Hydrometeorological disasters (HMDs) in the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) area have led to multiple water-related issues that resulted from extreme rainfall, glacial melt, and changing river flows, all of which are made worse by climate change and land use changes. Accurate warnings of these disasters are difficult due to sparse gauging and rugged topography in the Garhwal Himalaya region, which increases the likelihood of disasters during the monsoon. The same region experiences water shortage and drought especially during non-monsoon periods. The use of wide coverage remote sensing data from the study region as well as from neighboring countries with access to space-based data can play a significant role in the monitoring and analysing of these challenges. This study applies spatiotemporal clustering and multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) to map high-risk zones, which will allow policymakers to reinforce infrastructure providing disaster resilience. There is a need for a solution that uses multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) and spatiotemporal clustering to map areas in Uttarakhand, Himalaya, that are prone to disasters with the help of satellite-based data. To determine which tehsils (smaller administrative units) are vulnerable, it is suggested to examine more than 150 years of recorded disaster data with location and fatalities. Further vulnerable regions can be mapped using high-resolution satellite data (procured through Sentinel, Landsat, Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Digital Elevation Model (DEM), and Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM)) and analysed in the QGIS platform. This solution could use spatiotemporal clustering and MCDM to map high-risk zones, which will allow policymakers to reinforce infrastructure providing disaster resilience. Data of the Garhwal Himalayan region (India), which lies in the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region are needed. The topography of the HKH region is almost the same over eight countries, and all bear similar kinds of disasters and climate patterns. The Garhwal region occupies about 64 per cent of the area of the Uttarakhand state and is also the origin of the river Ganga.

Groundwater resource management using artificial intelligence and remote sensing technologies

Groundwater index maps for Bihar
Groundwater is a critical resource for drinking water, agriculture, and industry. With increasing anthropogenic activities and exponentially increasing population, groundwater in India is facing several challenges, related to quality as well as quantity, due to over-extraction, pollution, and climate change. Over-exploitation of groundwater may impact the availability and quality of groundwater which is not sustainable. Moreover, due to pollution in surface water, groundwater quality is also affected. In most of the cities of India, the quality of groundwater is below standard. Remote sensing and artificial intelligence can play a very vital role in monitoring the quantity as well as quality of groundwater. As, it is clear that presently no remote sensors can directly be used for groundwater observations, but by using surface features anomalies and gravity data obtained by various satellites, optimal groundwater management can be done using remote sensing. Space4water is one of the best communities addressing water related issues and work towards sustainable solutions. For the last three years, I am following this community, and I find that the community consists of scientists, NGO, policy makers etc. This combination has the potential to resolve issues related to any challenges related to social issues. I am looking for few global research partners who work for groundwater management using space technology. I am equally looking for data driven resource persons who can collaborate with me on real field conditions of various countries, related to groundwater management. What has been done so far is listed below: • Worked on GRACE satellite data and used it in field condition to study groundwater anomalies of few cities of India. • Developed spatio-temporal maps of Standardized Groundwater Index (SGI). • Worked on water quality of water bodies. • Used various satellite data to map water spread areas of various water bodies. • Worked on machine learning models to study in situ remediation of contaminated groundwater.

Need of geospatial analysis on further strengthening water sensitive urban planning and design to stormwater management in the Greater Colombo metropolitan area

Beddagana wetland Park in western province, outside of Colombo. Photo by Sureshkumar1213. CC.
In urban environments, three distinct water systems can typically be identified: (1) the drinking water supply, (2) the wastewater/sewer system, and (3) the rainwater/stormwater management system. While many cities are situated within urban watersheds, urban development has a significant impact on urban hydrology-associated environments, including waterways, coastal waters, and water supply catchments. Managing water flows within an urban setting is critically important, as original natural ecosystems have undergone significant land changes alongside anticipated precipitation variations due to climate change. It is imperative for urban areas situated on or near waterfronts to prioritize this matter. Therefore, water-sensitive urban planning and design framework integrating Nature-based Solutions in coastal, delta, and riverine cities within urban watersheds. It is similar to Green Infrastructure and/or Stormwater Best Management Practices, as well as Low-Impact Development, and the Water Sensitive Urban Design concept, which is an innovative framework for urban planning and design. It has evolved from its initial focus on stormwater management to encompass a more comprehensive approach to sustainable urban water management. It offers a cohesive framework for integrating the interactions between the built environment, including urban landscapes and the urban water cycle. Colombo, the commercial and financial hub of Sri Lanka, faces significant challenges due to its aging and congested urban infrastructure. The city is built on thirty-six wetland patches linked by a 50-kilometer man-made canal system called the Colombo Wetland Complex (CWC). Due to its strong connection with its wetland complex, Colombo City was recognized as the first capital to be accredited as an International Wetland City by Ramsar in 2018. The CWC includes open-water lakes, a canal system, wet woodlands, herb-dominated areas, riverine forests, active and abandoned paddy fields, and reedbeds. These wetlands provide crucial ecosystem services, enhancing residents' well-being through water purification, urban flood mitigation, temperature regulation, recreational opportunities, and urban agriculture. Revitalizing and developing the city, as well as encroachments, has led to the loss of its natural mosaic and ecosystem services. It is essential to explore sustainable solutions that address significant urban water management issues, including stormwater, wastewater, and groundwater.

The ecohydrological trade-off in Nepal’s Middle Hills: mapping spring decline and groundwater loss in community forests through space-based solutions

Map of Sharadha Khola watershed in Nepal
In Nepal’s Middle Hills, community-managed forests have successfully reversed deforestation, but they are now unintentionally contributing to water insecurity. Afforestation has heavily favored Pinus roxburghii, a fast-growing conifer with high year-round evapotranspiration and low infiltration capacity, significantly reducing groundwater recharge. As pine offers limited economic value, forest users increasingly shift to Sal (Shorea robusta) forests, valued for timber and compostable leaf litter. This shift concentrates human activity—such as litter collection, grazing, and trampling—around Sal patches, causing surface compaction and further reducing infiltration. Combined with unplanned road construction that disrupts natural flow paths, these disturbances have degraded upland recharge zones. Once crucial for replenishing groundwater, these uplands are now losing their recharge capacity, leading to measurable declines in groundwater storage and drying of springs in foothill and riparian zones that once flowed year-round. The consequences are widespread and socio-ecologically severe. Rural and Indigenous communities relying on spring-fed systems for drinking water, irrigation, and livestock now face escalating dry-season scarcity. Women and elderly members of marginalized groups bear the greatest burden, while increasing outmigration to urban centers exacerbates inequality. Yet forest governance remains focused on canopy cover and carbon sequestration, often overlooking essential hydrological processes like infiltration, baseflow, and subsurface storage. The continued decline in groundwater recharge also raises long-term concerns about shallow aquifer sustainability and overall water security. This situation is further complicated by a lack of reliable, long-term ground-based hydrometeorological data—many precipitation, temperature, and stream discharge records are missing or incomplete due to sensor failure—making it difficult to calibrate ecohydrological models and to design informed forest and water policies. Fortunately, space-based technologies provide a powerful solution. Remote sensing allows for long-term monitoring of vegetation, precipitation, soil moisture, and terrain, revealing the drivers of spring decline. When paired with ecohydrological modeling and community knowledge, these tools can guide forest management strategies that restore groundwater recharge and help achieve SDG targets 6, 13, and 15. Goals and milestones: The main goal of this research is to assess and mitigate ecohydrological trade-offs in Nepal’s Middle Hills caused by unscientific forest expansion under community forestry (CF). While CF has successfully increased forest cover, it has often overlooked hydrological impacts—particularly where high water-use species like pine have been planted without considering water balance consequences. This has led to declining baseflows, reduced groundwater recharge, and increased dry-season water stress. A key focus is to bridge the gap between Indigenous forest management practices and scientific understanding of forest-water interactions. By integrating Regional Hydro-Ecological Simulation System (RHESSys), ecohydrological modeling, satellite remote sensing, and community-level knowledge, the project aims to reveal how forest type, topography, and land use influence spring recharge zones, groundwater dynamics, and soil moisture retention. Research has shown that nearly 70 per cent of the springs in the region are degrading, threatening long-term water security. One of the critical goals of this research is to identify vulnerable and resilient spring zones—and ultimately support the rebirth of these springs through improved forest and land-use strategies. Short-term milestones include generating high-resolution maps of vegetation phenology, evapotranspiration, and groundwater storage (1985–2025), and validating RHESSys outputs with both field data and satellite products. In the mid-term, the study will identify groundwater-rich zones for future water-resilient settlements, simulate climate scenarios, and collaborate with local stakeholders. The long-term objective is to promote scientifically informed, community-adapted forest governance that enhances both ecological and water resilience across Nepal’s Middle Hills.

Project / Mission / Initiative / Community Portal

WMO Hydrological Observing System Portal

Currently, WHOS makes available three data portals allowing users to easily leverage common WHOS functionalities such as data discovery and data access, on the web by means of common web browsers. For more information on WHOS data and available tools, please refer to the Section WHOS web services and supported tools.

WHOS-Global Portal provides all hydrometeorological data shared through WHOS. WHOS-Global Portal is implemented using the Water Data Explorer application.

e-shape

e-shape is a unique initiative that brings together decades of public investment in Earth Observation and in cloud capabilities into services for the decision-makers, the citizens, the industry and the researchers. It allows Europe to position itself as global force in Earth observation through leveraging Copernicus, making use of existing European capacities and improving user uptake of the data from GEO assets.  EuroGEO, as Europe's contribution to the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS), aims at bringing together Earth Observation resources in Europe.

Stakeholder

Remote Sensing, GIS and Climatic Research Lab, University of the Punjab

The emerging demand of GIS and Space Applications for Climate Change studies for the socio-economic development of Pakistan along with Government of Pakistan Vision 2025, Space Vision 2047 of National Space Agency of Pakistan, and achievement of UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) impelled the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC) to establish Remote Sensing, GIS and Climatic Research Lab (RSGCRL) at University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan.

Satsense Solutions Limited

Satsense Solutions Limited is a start-up company that uses satellite earth observation to develop business and governance solutions addressing the challenges of resource management, climate change and sustainable development. It has developed and deployed several applications in the Water Resources, Hydropower, Mining and Infrastructure sectors. These include assessments of eutrophication levels in lakes and reservoirs and sedimentation rates at hydropower plants. Identification of pollution in rivers, acid mine drainage and tailings at mining sites.

Tribhuvan University, Institute of Forestry, Pokhara

The Institute of Forestry, Pokhara Campus (IOF-PC), Quality Assurance Accreditation (QAA) certified institution by the UGC, Nepal in September 2022, was established in 1981 as the Central Campus of the Institute of Forestry, one of the five technical institutes under Tribhuvan University, Nepal. The IOF, founded as Nepal Forestry Institute in Singh Durbar, Kathmandu, in 1947, was shifted to Suping (BhimPhedi) in 1957 and again to Hetauda in 1965.

The United Nations University Institute on Comparative Regional Integration Studies (UNU-CRIS)

The United Nations University Institute on Comparative Regional Integration Studies (UNU-CRIS) is a research and training institute of the United Nations University. UNU is a global network of institutes and programs engaged in research and capacity development to support the universal goals of the UN. It brings together leading scholars from around the world with a view to generate strong and innovative knowledge on how to tackle pressing global problems. UNU-CRIS focuses on the study of processes of global cooperation and regional integration and their implications.

Publication

Software/Tool/(Web-)App

ISME-HYDRO

ISME-HYDRO is a platform that helps monitor water resources of dams, thus enabling water resources managers to better execute their duties. It employs linked data infrastructure integrating in-situ measurements, satellite data, GIS data, domain knowledge, deep learning, and provides capabilities of forecasting of water volumes, of alerting for hazardous situations, of interaction with the data through four kinds of search and GIS interactivity. The platform is easily extendable and customizable.

Space-based Solution

Addressed challenge(s)

The extraction of information on groundwater for a geographically small, water-scarce and groundwater reliant region

Collaborating actors (stakeholders, professionals, young professionals or Indigenous voices)
Suggested solution

Solution summary

To address the challenge of water security in Bahrain, this solution integrates space-based technologies and geospatial analysis to identify and monitor potential water resources, particularly shallow groundwater. The methodology involves the use of satellite-derived datasets and terrain modelling tools to analyse hydrological behaviour, soil moisture, and elevation-based drainage characteristics.

Three main data sources were incorporated into the solution:

  1. GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) data is used to assess changes in terrestrial water storage at the regional scale by detecting gravity anomalies related to mass variations in groundwater. GRACE data is retrieved and visualised through platforms such as Google Earth Engine and ArcGIS Pro, enabling temporal monitoring of water resources.
     
  2. HAND (Height Above Nearest Drainage) modelling was employed to identify topographic wetness and assess the hydrological potential of the landscape. HAND normalises elevation relative to the nearest drainage, highlighting areas where water is more likely to accumulate or infiltrate. This method supports the identification of suitable zones for groundwater recharge, such as infiltration basins or artificial wetlands, especially in an arid environment like Bahrain. The HAND model was derived using the GLO-30 Copernicus DEM (2023_1 DGED version), processed through the TerraHidro platform, and included the generation of essential layers such as flow direction (D8), contributing area (D8CA), slope, and drainage networks with thresholds of 10, 100, and 300 pixels.
     
  3. Soil moisture analysis was conducted using two approaches:
  • SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) data from the Sentinel-1 constellation, which provides all-weather, day-and-night measurements of surface moisture conditions.
  • Optical-based soil moisture estimation, calculated from Landsat-8 imagery using vegetation and thermal indices (e.g., Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Land Surface Temperature (LST)). This dual approach allows for consistent monitoring of surface moisture, which is crucial for assessing recharge potential and supporting irrigation planning.

Together, these tools provide a multi-faceted view of Bahrain's hydrological landscape, enabling decision-makers to strategically identify areas with groundwater potential and implement more sustainable water resource management practices.

Solution requirements

Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE)

GRACE is a joint mission by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the German Aerospace Center (DLR) to measure Earth's gravity field anomalies from its launch in March 2002 to the end of its mission in October 2017. The GRACE Follow-On (GRACE-FO) is a continuation of the mission launched in May 2018. GRACE provides information on how mass is distributed and is varied over time through its detection of gravity anomalies. Because of this, a significant application of GRACE is groundwater anomalies detection. Hence, GRACE data has been explored as a solution for this challenge.

Two software platforms have been utilised to download and visualise GRACE data for Bahrain:

  1. Google Earth Engine (GEE): A cloud-based platform that facilitates remote sensing analysis with a large catalogue of satellite imagery and geospatial datasets. The platform is free for academic and research purposes.
     
  2. QGIS: A desktop application that allows the exploration, analysis and visualisation of geospatial data. This application is open source.

Height Above Nearest Drainage (HAND)

The Height Above Nearest Drainage (HAND) is a terrain model that normalises elevation data relative to the local drainage network, offering a hydrologically meaningful representation of the landscape. By calculating the vertical distance between each point on the terrain and the nearest drainage channel, HAND allows for the identification of topographic wetness zones and the classification of soil water environments. It has shown strong correlation with water table depth and has been effectively validated in various catchments, particularly in the Amazon region. The HAND model supports physically based hydrological modelling and has broad applicability in areas such as flood risk assessment, soil moisture mapping, and groundwater dynamics, using only remote sensing-derived topographic data as input.

Soil moisture using Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imagery

SAR data from Sentinel-1 constellation was used to generate relative soil moisture values. Seninel-1 is a radar-based satellite which acquires data with 6 days repeat cycle, and is neither affected by clouds, weather nor time of the day. Being a dual-polarimetric platform, it acquires data in VV (Vertical-transmit and Vertical received) polarization and VH (Vertical-transmit and Horizontal received) polarization. The data was analysed in GEE.

Soil moisture using multispectral and thermal imagery (Optical)

The data utilised to detect soil moisture are satellite imagery from Landsat-8 downloaded through GEE. Landsat-8 provides multispectral and thermal satellite imagery with 16 days repeat cycle. The specific bands required to calculate soil moisture index are the red, near-infrared bands and thermal infrared bands.

Solution outline and steps

GRACE

Figure 1 illustrates the steps taken to extract the recent GRACE Monthly Mass Grids Version 04 - Global Mascon (CRI Filtered) Dataset from GEE.

 

Steps to download GRACE satellite data
Figure 1. Download steps for GRACE Data

 

HAND

The elevation data downloaded and processed for the region of interest were derived from the GLO-30 dataset. The Copernicus DEM, a Digital Surface Model (DSM), represents the Earth's surface, including features such as buildings, vegetation, and infrastructure. This DSM is based on the WorldDEM product, which has undergone extensive editing to ensure the flattening of water bodies, consistent river flow representation, and correction of terrain anomalies, including shorelines, coastlines, and features like airports. The WorldDEM itself was generated using radar satellite data from the TanDEM-X mission, a Public Private Partnership between the German Aerospace Centre (DLR) and Airbus Defence and Space. The GLO-30 data used in this work corresponds to the 2023_1 version of the Defence Gridded Elevation Data (DGED), provided via ESA’s https PRISM service and made accessible through OpenTopography.

The following products were processed using the TerraHidro software from the GLO-30 dataset: removepits.tif, d8.tif, d8ca.tif, slope.tif, drainage_10.tif, drainage_100.tif, and drainage_300.tif, as well as the HAND-derived products hand_10.tif, hand_100.tif, and hand_300.tif. Each product has a specific role in hydrological modeling:

  • removepits: This process modifies the original Digital Elevation Model (DEM) to eliminate depressions or pits that are not hydrologically realistic, ensuring that every cell has a defined downstream flow direction.
  • d8: The D8 (Deterministic 8) flow direction model calculates the steepest descent path from each pixel to one of its eight neighbors, indicating the primary direction of surface water flow.
  • d8ca: The D8 Contributing Area represents the number of upstream cells that contribute flow to each cell, allowing the identification of areas of potential accumulation and drainage.
  • slope: This product calculates the slope of the terrain in degrees, essential for understanding runoff velocity and erosion potential.
  • drainage_10, drainage_100, and drainage_300: These are drainage networks derived from the D8 contributing area, using threshold values of 10, 100, and 300 pixels, 0.9ha, 9ha and 27ha, respectively. They represent streams formed when the contributing area exceeds the specified number of pixels, with higher thresholds resulting in more generalised drainage networks.

From these products, the following HAND (Height Above Nearest Drainage) models were generated:

  • hand_10, hand_100, and hand_300: These datasets represent the vertical distance (in meters) from each pixel to the nearest drainage cell identified in the corresponding drainage network (with thresholds of 10, 100, and 300 pixels, respectively). These HAND maps are used to characterise terrain wetness, identify flood-prone areas, and support soil moisture and hydrological modeling.

All processing followed the methodology and toolset provided by the TerraHidro system, developed by INPE, and detailed at http://www.dpi.inpe.br/terrahidro/doku.php.

Soil moisture (SAR)

Several steps were executed to derive the mean soil moisture conditions over the study area between 2017 and 2024. A step-by-step guide is shown in Figure 2. The values of soil moisture estimated is relative to the maximum soil moisture recorded in the region such that the wettest will be the maximum and the driest will be the minimum.  These are used to normalise the final output into values between 0 and 1 where 0 is the driest and 1 is the wettest.

Steps for processing SAR soil moisture
Figure 2. Processing steps for SAR soil moisture

 

Soil moisture (Optical)

Similar to the soil moisture calculation with SAR, an average of the soil moisture from 2017 to 2024 has been derived. The interrelations between the derived vegetation through the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) as well as Land Surface Temperature (LST) have been the basis for generating the soil moisture map. Figure 3 demonstrates the steps followed to generate optical soil moisture.

Steps for processing optical soil moisture
Figure 3. Processing steps for optical soil moisture

 

Shallow groundwater locations/recharge areas

To estimate potential suitable locations for shallow groundwater or groundwater rechange, the results from the HAND, SAR and optical soil moisture have been aggregated to formulate a final classification map. To perform this, the following has been done:

  1. Classification of HAND, SAR and optical soil moisture results to ranges from 1-5, with 5 being the most suitable region based on the related values.
  2. Spatial modelling of these three classifications to formulate a final suitability value from 1-5 with 5 being the most suitable region overall. HAND has been given a weightage of 50 per cent while SAR and optical soil moisture have been given a weightage of 25 per cent each to represent 50 per cent overall for soil moisture.

Map generation

Different maps have been generated for each component of this solution (HAND, SAR soil moisture, optical soil moisture, shallow groundwater locations/recharge areas). The subsequent steps illustrate the steps needed to develop the maps for this solution:

  1. A basemap is added to the map for visualisation purposes. This is done through using the QGIS plugin called QuickMapServices. To install plugins, go to the Plugins tab and select Manage and Install Plugins.
Installing plugins in QGIS
Figure 4. Map generation - Step 1

 

  1. In the search box of the Plugins window, search for QuickMapServices and install the plugin.
QGIS plugin QuickMapServices
Figure 5. Map generation - Step 2

 

  1. The plugin logo should appear in the QGIS panel. Click on the logo for Search QMS Panel. This label would appear if you hovered over the logo.
Finding plugin in QGIS panel
Figure 6. Map generation - Step 3

 

  1. In the Search QMS Panel on the right, search for Google Satellite and add the basemap. It should appear in the list of layers.
Adding a basemap with the QGIS plugin
Figure 7. Map generation - Step 4

 

  1. Now we have a base layer that we can place our analysis on top of. Add the layer to the QGIS project if it is not already added. This can be done through drag and drop.
Adding a layer to QGIS project
Figure 8. Map generation - Step 5

 

  1. Right click on the layer and select Properties to adjust visualisation parameters.
Adjusting parameters in Properties of layer in QGIS
Figure 9. Map generation - Step 6

 

  1. In the Layer Properties window, click on Symbology and discover the most appropriate visualisation method for the data layer. This is an example for the set classifications for the HAND.
Adjusting symbology of a layer in QGIS
Figure 10. Map generation - Step 7

 

  1. Once the layer visualisation has been set, the map layout can be generated. Go to Project > New Print Layout and name the layout.
Creating a new print layout in QGIS
Figure 11. Map generation - Step 8

 

Naming the print layout in QGIS
Figure 12. Map generation - Step 8

 

  1. In the Layout window, items such as the layers map, legend, scales can be added. This is accessed through the Add Item tab.
Adding items to print layout in QGIS
Figure 13. Map generation - Step 9

 

  1. The items added to the map can then be moved and arranged by selecting the Edit tab then either Select/Move Content to move the locations of the specific content or Move Content to move the position/scale of the map.
Moving and scaling the map in the print layout in QGIS
Figure 14. Map generation - Step 10

 

  1. Each item’s properties such as size, colour and fonts can also be edited in the Item Properties panel in the right.
Adjusting the properties of an item in the print layout in QGIS
Figure 15. Map generation - Step 11

 

  1. The final generated layout is then exported in the desired format: png, pdf or svg. This is achieved through clicking on the Layout tab.
Exporting the print layout in QGIS
Figure 16. Map generation - Step 12

 

Results and maps

GRACE

The GRACE data has been downloaded and analysed through GEE. The main limitation of this dataset is its course resolution of 55.6 km2 as downloaded from the platform. This is due to the small geographical area of Bahrain at around 800 km2, causing water storage monitoring in specific locations to be a difficult task. Figure 17 demonstrates the span of GRACE data relative to the area of Bahrain.

GRACE data monthly grids for Bahrain
Figure 17.GRACE Mascon- 2002 to 2024 Bahrain

 

HAND

The HAND model shown in the figure 18 provides valuable insights for addressing water scarcity in Bahrain. The low-lying areas highlighted in blue indicate regions where water tends to accumulate or water table is relatively shallow, suggesting potential zones for managed aquifer recharge (MAR) or stormwater harvesting. These areas could be prioritised for infiltration basins, recharging wells, or constructed wetlands to enhance groundwater storage. Conversely, the higher elevation zones in grey are less likely to retain surface water but could be strategically used for runoff collection and diversion to recharge areas. Given Bahrain’s arid climate and dependence on non-conventional water sources, integrating HAND-based terrain analysis into water resource planning can support more resilient, localised, and efficient water management strategies, particularly in optimising land use for recharge, storage, and flood mitigation purposes.

Map with results for HAND at 100m threshold
Figure 18. HAND results map

 

Soil moisture (SAR)

Figure 19 shows the mean soil moisture values of different regions of Bahrain. The southern regions seem to be drier while most central regions are wet. The analysis excluded urban regions.

Map with SAR soil moisture results
Figure 19. SAR soil moisture results map

 

Soil moisture (Optical)

Figure 20 illustrates the soil moisture map with optical imagery for Bahrain. The results here highlight the northern west regions with high soil moisture values and the central, southern regions as dry with some specific location in the central and southern regions as wet.

Map with optical soil moisture results
Figure 20. Optical soil moisture results map

 

Shallow groundwater locations/recharge areas

Through Figure 5, the combinations of HAND, SAR and optical soil moisture has yielded to the potential locations for shallow groundwater locations/recharge areas. The areas highlighted in red represent the locations with highest potential.

Map showing potential shallow groundwater locations and recharge areas in Bahrain
Figure 21. Shallow groundwater locations/recharge areas results map

 

Solution impact

With the establishment of a methodology that identifies locations of shallow groundwater or recharge, significant information is being derived about the hydrological state of the country. This importance is placed due to the lack of remote sensing data that enables direct measurement of groundwater in the area. Hence the information extracted from this methodology can be initially integrated with sample in-situ data to calibrate the model; and then, be relied on solely for future measurements. Additionally, with the country’s rigorous focus on addressing groundwater scarcity, this type of information can greatly support decision-making when it comes to the formulation and execution of different projects and policies related to this matter.

Future work

To enhance the accuracy, applicability, and long-term impact of this solution in addressing water scarcity in Bahrain, several future developments are proposed:

  1. Integration of additional remote sensing products: Incorporate higher-resolution satellite data to improve spatial resolution in soil moisture and elevation analyses, enabling finer-scale hydrological modeling and more localised identification of recharge zones. Moreover, the inclusion of land cover and geological characteristics can enhance the spatial modelling conducted.
     
  2. Validation with in-situ data: Collaborate with local water authorities to collect and integrate ground-truth data such as groundwater levels, soil profiles, and well yields to validate and calibrate the HAND model and soil moisture outputs. This is also vital to assess the suitable weightage and classification for spatial modelling to be done to combine all three products generated.
     
  3. Development of a Decision Support System (DSS): Create an interactive platform or dashboard that integrates HAND, GRACE, and soil moisture maps to assist policymakers in identifying priority areas for groundwater recharge, stormwater harvesting, and drought preparedness.
     
  4. Temporal analysis and trend monitoring: Implement time-series analyses of GRACE and soil moisture data to detect trends, seasonal variations, and anomalies in water availability, supporting early warning systems and long-term planning.
     
  5. Hydrological modelling coupling: Link HAND-derived terrain data with physically based hydrological models (e.g., SWAT, DHSVM) to simulate runoff, infiltration, and recharge scenarios under different land use and climate conditions.
     
  6. Community engagement and capacity building: Conduct training workshops and knowledge-sharing activities with national institutions and stakeholders to build local capacity in geospatial water resource monitoring using open-source and space-based tools.

By pursuing these developments, the solution can evolve into a comprehensive and replicable model for sustainable groundwater resource management in water-scarce regions worldwide.

Relevant publications
Related space-based solutions
Sources

Nobre, A. D., Cuartas, L. A., Hodnett, M., Rennó, C. D., Rodrigues, G., Silveira, A., Waterloo, M., & Saleska, S. “Height Above the Nearest Drainage – a hydrologically relevant new terrain model.” Journal of Hydrology 404, no. 1–2 (2011): 13–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.051.

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